Source: adapted from Notteboom, T. and Haralambides, H. (2025). Seaports in a tense geopolitical environment: key agents or sitting ducks? Maritime Economics & Logistics, 27(1), 1-24.
- Reshoring. Bringing activities back to the country/region.
- Nearshoring. Moving activities in a neighboring country.
- Friendshoring. Moving activities to a country with similar norms and values and/or political system.
- Offshoring. Moving activities to countries on other continents (different time zones).